Ojibwa battle of the River Themes plaque, Ontario, Canada

---

 In 1968 Dennis Banks of the Leech Lake band co-founded AIM with Clyde Bellecourt of White Earth, aka the American Indian Movement in Minneapolis, MN. They wanted systemic issues of poverty, discrimination, and police brutality experienced by Native Americans addressed[321] Very quickly the focus widened to include treaty rights, unemployment rates, the lack of Native American topics in schools, and the preservation of Indigenous cultures.[321][322] The Chippewa/Ojibwa historic ties to Tecumseh via Chiefs Shin-ga-ba W'Ossin and Oshawana, should be noted as historic antecedents to AIM. Other Ojibwa associated with the AIM movement were Vernon Bellecourt, Clyde's brother and Leonard Peltier, of the Turtle-Mountain band. He was convicted in the deaths of two FBI agents on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1975.

Manitoba Indian Brotherhood, MIB  In Canada the MIB was the Canadian verison of AIM. The MIB was formed in the late 1960s also. The MIB was replaced by the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs (AMC) whose first leader was, Louis Stevenson, Chief of Peguis First Nation Ojibwa. During her 1970 visit Queen Elizabeth met with the MIB.[323]

 The use of the term "First Nations" evolved with the Indigenous activism of the MIB and their emphasis of Indigenous identity.   The Constitution Act, 1982, laid out the legal framework for Aboriginal rights in Canada.  

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3. ^ Shin-Ga-Ba-Wossin, McKenney and Hall's 'Indian Tribes of North America, McKenney and Hall, Philadelphia, 1833 [275]
4. ^ Peter Jones, Frederick E. Hoxie, Encyclopedia of North American Indians, 1996, p.306 [[276]]
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6. ^ Jump up to:a b Indian Loving Catlin and His Buffalo Powder Horn, Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, Wilkes Barre Pa, 1930, pp.22-26 [278]
7. ^ Nebenaigoching, Karl S. Hele, The Canadian Encylopedia, 2024 [279]
8. ^ Dictionary of the Otchipwe Language, Frederic Baraga, pub. Jos. A. Hemann, Cincinnati, 1853, Wisconsin Historical Society, 2024 [280]
9. ^ Early life among the Indians reminiscences from the life of Benj. G. Armstrong, Benj. G. Armstrong, 1892, [281]
10. ^ Armstrong and a delegation of Chippewa chiefs meet with Lincoln, Chiefbuffalo.com, 2024,[[282]]
11. ^ Narrative Of the Indian War of 1862-1864 and Following Campaigns in Minnesota, Charles Eugene Flandreau, 1890, p.789, Forgotten Books, 2018, ISBN 10-0266767648
12. ^ Joseph D. Gurnoe/Chequamegon history, Amorin Mello, 2024 [283]
13. ^ An Indian PowWow, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Mar 27, 1863, p.1, Library of Congress, 2024 [284]
14. ^ Progress Up the River, Chapter XVIII, History of Early Steamboat Navigation on the Missouri River, Capt. Hiram Martin Chittende, New York, Francis P. Harper publisher, 1903 [285]
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17. ^ A Trading Station photograph, Angus B McVicar, Wisconsin Historical Society, 2024 [288]
18. ^ Indian Hunters and Rice Gatherers, Indians at the Post Office, Smithsonian, 2024,[289]
19. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indian Tribes on the American Frontiers, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, 1851, Clyx.com, 2024 [290]
20. ^ Minong Copper Mining District, National Historic Landmark Nomination, 2025 [291]
21. ^ Copper Artifacts, Milwaukee Public Museum, 2024, Milwaukee, WS [292]
22. ^ The Anishinabe Way, Besser Museum for Northeast Michigan, Alpena, MI, 2024[293]
23. ^ Copper Spearhead, A Museum Called Manitoba, 2024[294]
24. ^ First Peoples of Canada: Native copper from the Canadian Museum of History, 2016 [295]
25. ^ "Old Copper" in Manitoba, Nutimik Lake Museum, Whiteshell Provincial Park, MB [296]
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27. ^ Meaning of the Word Ojibwa, history of the Ojibways and their connection with fur traders, Schoolcraft, Library of Congress, 2024 [298]
28. ^ 5 Forgotten Names for the Mighty Chippewa River, Volume One Magazine, Tom Giffey, 2016, Eau Claire, WS [299]
29. ^ The Ontonagon Copper Rock, Sacramento Daily Union, Vol. 14, No. 2039, 8 Oct. 1857, California Digital Newspaper Center, University of CA Riverside, 2024 [300]
30. ^ Jump up to:a b Wa-Bish-Kee-Pe-Nas and the Chippewa Reverence for Copper, Bernard C. Peters, Michigan Historical Review, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Fall, 1989), pp. 47-60, Historical Society of MI 2024 [301]
31. ^ The Great Lakes in Ojibwe, The Decolonial Atlas, 2014 [302]
32. ^ Uncovering the Secrets of Michigan’s Ancient Petroglyphs, Doug Marrin, The Sun Times, Aug. 2024, Dexter Michigan [303]
33. ^ Chippewa Customs, Frances Densmore, GPO, 1929, p.74, reprint Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1979, ISBN: 9780873511421
34. ^ Chief Wabanquot, Find a Grave, Cindy K. Coffin, 2024 [304]
35. ^ Jump up to:a b c Chapter IV, Rev. James B. Finley, Life amongst the Indians, p.106. Hitchcock and Walden, Cincinnati, 1857, Google books, 2025 [305]
36. ^ Battle of the Flint River – Fact or Fiction?, Peter Hintermann, My City Magazine, Nov. 2018 [306]
37. ^ Chippewa Sauk War, Timothy Dowell, 2019 Prezi Inc., 2025 [307]
38. ^ Point Iroquois: An Important Ojibwe Military Victory, Adam Berger, Upper Peninsula History, 2024 [308]
39. ^ History of Chippewa, Niagara Falls Info, 2024 [309]
40. ^ Jump up to:a b c Daniel Greysolon Sieur Du Lhut (1636-1710) A Peaceful Sioux – Ojibwe Alliance 1678-1683: Ojibwa and Sioux Beginnings, Red River Ancestery.ca, 2025 [310]
41. ^ Ripples from La Prairie Voyageur Canoes, 2019 [311]
42. ^ Canoes, Productions Rivard Inc., 2024 [312]
43. ^ Jump up to:a b The Struggle for Minnesota, The Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians: Forest Resource Relationships 1700-1900, Daniel M. Heth, University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, 2025 [313]
44. ^ Battle of Point Prescott, Red River Ancestory.com, 2013 [314]
45. ^ Military Alliances, Colonies and Empires: French Colonial Expansion and Franco-Amerindian Alliances, Canadian Museum of History, QC Canada 2025, [315]
46. ^ The Land Belongs to Neither One: Native Americans, Europeans, and the Raid on Pickawillany, Luke Martinez, California State University, Fresno, 2011, pp.42, 51–52, 54–55 [316]
47. ^ Jump up to:a b c Role during the War: Ojibwa People, Kronoskaf the Virtual Time Machine, 2025 [317]
48. ^ Minavavana, Digital History, 2025 [318]
49. ^ Rattlesnake Native Relations, Ontario Archaeology No.79/80, 2005, p.138, 2025 [319]
50. ^ Cannabalism, History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac, and the War of the North American Tribes Against the English Colonies After the Conquest of Canada, Vol. 1, Richard Bentley, London 1851, p.329, Google books, 2024 [320]
51. ^ Chippewa Indian Chiefs and Leaders, Access Genealogy, 2024 [321]
52. ^ Madjekewiss, Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Vol. V (1801-20) 2024 [322]
53. ^ Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees, John Sugden, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000, p.67 ISBN 0-8032-4288-3
54. ^ Changing Currents Feature No. 1, Chippewa Valley Museum, 2014 [323]
55. ^ Jump up to:a b Forth Harmar Treaty (1789) & Greenville Treaty Signers (1795), Wash. County Chapter Ohio Genealogical Society, Marietta,OH, 2024 [324]
56. ^ Move to the plains, Tribal Historical Overview, No. Dakota Dept. of Public Instruction, 1997 [325]
57. ^ The Biggest Forgotten American Indian Victory, Colin G. Calloway, What It Means to be American, Smithsonian, 2015 [326]
58. ^ Jump up to:a b The Red River Expedition 1870, Lt. H.S.H. Riddell, 60th Rifles, Paper 5, p.116, 2025 [327]
59. ^ Anishinaabeg in the War of 1812, Alan Corbiere, Active History, University of Saskatchewan and Huron University, 2024 [328]
60. ^ Niibaakohm: Ojibwa War Chief and Debassis ancestor, A. Corbiere, Kinoomaadiwag, Vol.3 No.1, 2005, digital Collections, Six Nations Library, 2024 [329]
61. ^ The Siege Of Detroit: Book review, Peg Thomas, 2020, [330]], The Siege Of Detroit In 1763: The Journal of Pontiac’s Conspiracy and John Rutherfurd’s Narrative of Captivity, John Rutherfurd, 2011, Literary Licensing, LLC, ISBN| 9781258053789
62. ^ NOAA-supported mission discovers historic shipwrecks off Turks and Caicos Islands, NOAA, 2024 [331]
63. ^ War Art in Canada, A Critical History, Laura Brandon, Art Institute Canada, Toronto, OT Canada, 2024 [332]
64. ^ The Story of The Ontonagon Copper Boulder, Hope Pantell, Smithsonian Press, Washington, D.C., 1971, p.1 [333]
65. ^ Beaumier Exhibit Looks at Lewis Cass Expedition, 2024, Northern Michigan University, Marquette, MI [334]
66. ^ Treaty of Fond Du Lac... chiefs given medals, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, National Journal, Washington DC, Oct. 7, 1826, Timothy Hughes Rare & Early Newspapers, 2025 [335]
67. ^ Neenába's Map: line on the Red Cedar Fork, Wisconsin Historical Society, 2024 [336]
68. ^ Indian schools, Rochester Post-Bulletin, May 26, 1958, p.26, Newspapers.com, 2024 [337]
69. ^ Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, Robert Dale Parker, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 2012 [338]
70. ^ She Could Look Into the Heavens: Ojibwe Poet Jane Johnston Schoolcraft, Anne Holmes, Library of Congress Nov, 2021 [339]
71. ^ Wiki commons, 2024 [340]
72. ^ September 26, 1833 – Treaty of Chicago, Forest County Potawatamie, WS 2024 [341]
73. ^ Translation Help Needed: Ojibwe and French placenames on Joseph Nicollet’s manuscript map of Wisconsin, Chequamegon History, Leo Filipczak, 2024 [342]
74. ^ The Journals of Joseph N. Nicollet: a scientist on the Mississippi headwaters, with notes on Indian life, 1836-37, Martha Coleman Bray, p.19, 31,44 , Minnesota Historical Society, 1970, ISBN 0873510623
75. ^ Joseph M. Nicollet, South Dakota Historical Press [343]
76. ^ Study Resource Guide. US Dakota War of 1862 Anoka County, US Dakota War Minnesota County By County, 2024 [344]
77. ^ Adventure of the Ojibbeway and Ioway Indians in England, France, and Belgium; Being Notes of Eight Years’ Travels and Residence in Euope With His North Amaerican Indian Collection Vol. 2, Chapter XXVIII, George Catlin, No.6 Waterloo Place, London [345]
78. ^ The Battle of Battle Creek, Frank Gilbertson, City of Maplewood, MN, 2024 [346]
79. ^ Hero of the Chippewa Sioux Battle..., The Saint Paul Globe, Oct. 12, 1902, p.3, Minnsota Digital Newapaper hub, 2025 [347]
80. ^ Canvas attracts global interest, James Adams, The Globe and Mail, Nov. 17, 2004 [348]
81. ^ The Indiana Herald, Jul 17, 1850 p.2, Newspapers.com 2024 [349]
82. ^ “Sudden and Entire”: Investigating the Accusation of Cannibalism in the Early Chippewa Tribes Shelby Miller History 489: Research Seminar December 20, 2016, [350]
83. ^ Great Indian Battle in Minnesota, The Daily Dispatch, Oct. 11, 1855, p.1, Library of Congress, 2024 [351]
84. ^ Indian Battle, 19 Sioux Killed, Demoine Courier, Ottumwa, Iowa, Sept. 27, 1855, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [352]
85. ^ The Goodhue Volunteer, Jan 28, 1863, p.1, Library of Congress, 2023 [353]
86. ^ Francis Vincenti, Bust of Aysh-Ke-Bah-Ke-Ko-Zhay, or Flat Mouth, an Ojibwa Chief, Sotheby's, 2019 [354]
87. ^ Leaman Indian Rifle, Green River Rifle Works, GRRW Collector, Phil L. Meek, 2024 [355]
88. ^ 1860 Great Britain Victoria Peace Medal: Mar 17, 2021, Heritage Auctions, [356]
89. ^ Silver peace medal stamped "1860" and with the crest of the Prince of Wales, Gilcrease Museum, 2025 [357]
90. ^ The General we Want, The Goodhue Volunteer, September 17, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper hub, 2023 [358]
91. ^ Jump up to:a b c d From Chippewa Country, Winona Weekly Republican, Sept 3, 1862, Minnesota Digital Hub 2023, MNHS [359]
92. ^ Indian War, St Cloud Democrat, Vol.5, No. 5, 28 Aug 1862, p. 2, Newspapers.com, 2023 [360]
93. ^ Jump up to:a b Letters from Abercrombie, St. Cloud Democrat, Oct. 2, 1862, p.1, Library of Congress, 2024 [361]
94. ^ Fort Ridgely, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Sept 5, 1863, p.1, Minnesota Digital Newspaper hub, 2023, MNHS [362]
95. ^ An Offer of Aid from the Chippewas., New York Times, Sept. 14, 1862, p.9, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, 2023 [363]
96. ^ 2 Wisconsin Chippewa Chiefs, The New York Herald, Sept 14, 1862, p.5, Library of Congress, 2023 [364]
97. ^ Lake Superior Chippeways, Mankato Semi-weekly Record, Sept. 13, 1862, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspapers hub, 2023, MNHS [365]
98. ^ Hole-in-the-Day requests Wisconsin warriors for Chippewa woman murdered by the Sioux, The Saint Paul Daily Press, Sept. 7, 1862, Minnesota Newspaper Digital Hub, 2023, MNHS[366]
99. ^ Daily Alta California, Vol XIV, No. 4640, 5 Nov. 1862, California Digital Newspaper Collection, UC Riverside, CA, 2024, (Interview with the Chippewa, Nicolay attending) [367]
100. ^ Fighting between the St. Croix and Long lake Indians, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Oct. 23, 1863, Minnesota Newspaper Digital Hub, 2023, MNHS [368]
101. ^ Arizona Weekly Citizen, July 26, 1890, p.2, Library of Congress, 2023 [369]
102. ^ Letter of Commissioner Dole, 11 Sept, 1862, The Goodhue Volunteer Vol. VII, No.8, Sept. 17, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [370]
103. ^ Daily Alta California, Vol XIV, No. 4592, 18 Sept 1862, California Digital Newspaper Collection, UC Riverside, CA. [371]
104. ^ Liverpool Albion, 20 Oct. 1862,British Newspapers Archives, London, 2024 [372]
105. ^ Ne-bah-quah-om (Big Dog), chief, Pillager band Chippewa, Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Illinois, [373]
106. ^ Ne-Bah-Quah-Om (Big Dog), The Dakota War of 1862, A Case Study on the Minnesota Dakota War of 1862, William Clements Library, University of Michigan, 909 S. University Ave. Ann Arbor, MI [374]
107. ^ The Indian War, Pioneer and Democrat Vol. XIV No. 17, 10 Oct. 1862, p.1, Library of Congress, 2023 [375]
108. ^ Ne-Bah-Quah-Om (Big Dog): The Dakota War of 1862, A Case Study on the Minnesota Dakota War of 1862, William Clements Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI [376]
109. ^ The Chester Chronicle 25 Oct, 1862, Chester England, p.2, 2023, The British Newspaper Archive [[377]
110. ^ North America Indians, Liverpool Albion (England) 20 Oct 1862, British Newspaper Archive, [378]
111. ^ Head chief of the Lac Centre Orielle Chippewa, St. Paul, Minnesota, c. 1862, Aw-Ke-Wen-Zee, The Autry Museum of the American West’s Collections Online, 4700 Western Heritage Way, Los Angeles, CA, 2023 [379]
112. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Old Photos - Ojibwa (aka Ojibwe, aka Ojibway), grahamew, American-Indian-Tribes.com, 2024 [380]
113. ^ Buffalo aka Be-she-kee aka Pezeke aka Bizhiki - Chippewa Chief, First People: American Indian Photographs: Gallery I, p.7 [381]
114. ^ Jump up to:a b Letter from St.Cloud, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, 3 Oct, 1862, p.6, Newspapers.com, 2023 [382]
115. ^ The Volunteer, 1 Oct, 1862, Library of Congress, 2023 [383]
116. ^ Jump up to:a b Indian Rising, St. Cloud Democrat, Aug. 21, 1862, p.2, Library of Congress, 2023 [384]
117. ^ From the Red River, The Saint Paul Daily Press, Sept. 6, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [385]
118. ^ Jump up to:a b The Indian War, The Saint Paul Daily Press, Sept. 28, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [386]
119. ^ From Fort Abercrombie, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Sept. 12, 1862, p.5, Library of Congress, 2023, [387]
120. ^ From the Red River, White Cloud Kansas Chief, Sept. 18, 1862, p.2, Library of Congress, 2023 [388]
121. ^ Narrative Of the Indian War of 1862-1864 and Following Campaigns in Minnesota, Charles Eugene Flandreau, 1890, p.745, Forgotten Books, 2018, ISBN-10: 0266767648
122. ^ The St. Paul Daily, 28 Aug. 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS
123. ^ The St. Paul Daily, Aug. 24, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [389]
124. ^ News from Abercrombie, The St. Paul Daily, Sept. 9, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [390]
125. ^ From Fort Abercrombie, The Chicago Tribune, Sept. 12, 1862, p.2, Library of Congress, 2023 [391]
126. ^ From the Northwest, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Sept 5, 1862 p.4 Newspapers.com, 2025 [392]
127. ^ The Chippewa for Peace, The Saint Paul Daily Press Sept 9, 1862, p.1, Minnesota Digital Newspaper hub, 2023, MNHS [393]
128. ^ Half an hour with Pierre Bottineau, The Saint Paul Daily Press, Sept. 30, 1862, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [394]
129. ^ From Chippewa Country, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Oct. 10, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [395]
130. ^ The Pioneer and Democrat, 7 Nov. 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [396]
131. ^ The Hope pioneer, Oct. 23, 1885, p.2 Library of Congress, 2024 [397]
132. ^ John George Nicolay—One of “the Boys”, Lincoln Collection, 2024 [398]
133. ^ Army Correspondence, Rochester Republican, Sept. 17, 1862, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2025 MNHS [399]
134. ^ The Illinois State Journal, Sep 13, 1862 p.3, Newspapers.com [400]
135. ^ The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat, Oct. 17, 1862, Minnesota Digital Nnewaspaper Hub, 2025, MNHS [401]
136. ^ The Indian War, The Baltimore Sun, Oct 06, 1862 p.1, Newspapers.com [402]
137. ^ Took Three Enemy Scalps, The Keota News (Keota, CO), May 26, 1922, Library of Congress, 2024 [403]
138. ^ What Roles did Minnesota's Native Chiefs play, Mark Boswell, Minneapolis Tribune, 23, Feb 2024 [404]
139. ^ Tribal enrollment, Red Bear Pembina Chippewa Indians 2024 [405]
140. ^ Discover the Range, Explore Minnesota, 2025 [406]
141. ^ Protection for Pine County, The Weekly Pioneer and Democrat 05 Sep 1862, p. 4, Newspapers.com 2023 [407]
142. ^ The Indian Troubles. The St Paul Daily Press, 25 January, 1863, Minnesota Digital Newspaper hub, 2023, MNHS [408]
143. ^ Treaty between the United States and the Red-lake and Pembina Bands of Chippewas, The Saint Paul Daily Press, Mar. 4, 1864, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [409]
144. ^ From the Northwest, The New York Times, Jan 24, 1863 p.1, Newspaper.com, 2025 [410]
145. ^ Lead the Way: Researching U.S. Army Indian Scouts, 1866–1914, Trevor K. Plante, Prologue Magazine, Summer 2009, Vol. 41, No. 2, National Archives, 2024 [411]
146. ^ Native Americans in the Antebellum U.S. Military, James P. Collins, Prologue Magazine, Winter 2007, Vol. 39, No. 4, National Archives, 20024[412]
147. ^ Enlisted Indian Scouts Enlistment Papers, Native American Heritage, National Archives, 2024 [413]
148. ^ From the Indian Expedition, The Saint Paul Daily Press, July 22, 1863, p.1, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [414]
149. ^ Bannock Point Petroforms - Whiteshell Provincial Park, Tim Hauf, 2024 [415]
150. ^ Kahkewaquonaby, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, Donald B. Smith, University of Toronto 2000 [416]
151. ^ Tell the Mille-Lacs what Danger they are in, Minnesota Historical Society Contract #92-C-2763, Chapter 5, "Reminiscences of Life among the Chippewa (Part III)", Anthony Godfrey, U.S. West Research, 1973, p.100-18, POB 2172, La Cross, WS,[417]
152. ^ From St. Paul, Chicago Tribune, Jan 20, 1864 p.1, Newspapers.com, 2024, [418]
153. ^ Pembina the 4th, The Evening Post, Cleveland, Jan 26, 1864 p.2, Newspapers.com [419]
154. ^ Zhauwuno-geezhigo-gaubow (“he who stands in the southern sky”) Vol. XIII (1901-1910), Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 2024 [420]
155. ^ Occurrence's of Long Ago, Wausau Pilot, December 22, 1908, Library of Congress, 2024 [421]
156. ^ Affairs at Camp Douglas, The Chippewa Chiefs have a Talk With the Rebels, Chicago Daily Tribune, Jan. 29, 1863, p.4, Library of Congress, 2025 [422]
157. ^ A Talk to the Rebels, Washington Standard, Mar. 28, 1863, p.1 Library of Congress, 2025 [423]
158. ^ The Chippewas and the Rebels, The Saint Paul Daily Press, Feb. 1, 1863, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2025, MNHS [424]
159. ^ Chippewa and the Rebels, Mankato Independent, Feb. 6, 1863, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2025, MNHS [425]
160. ^ Jump up to:a b c Indian Fight,Rochester Republican, July 12, 1866, p.1 Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [426]
161. ^ Private Letters, Chatfield Democrat, July 21, 1866, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 20024, MNHS [427]
162. ^ The Agent of the Hudson Bay Co, Prescott Journal, July 21, 1866, p.2, Library of Congress, 2025 [428]
163. ^ Cannibalism, The Manitowoc Pilot, July 20, 1866, p.1, Library of Congress, 2025 [429]
164. ^ Treaty Number One Medals at the Manitoba Museum tell a First Nations Story, Maureen Matthews, Manitoba Museum, 2024, [430]
165. ^ After 150 years, rare treaty medal remains with family of man who signed Treaty 2, Lenard Monkman, CBS News, Aug. 19, 2021 [V]
166. ^ Chippewa, Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, 2025 [431]
167. ^ CHIPPEWA STUDENTS AT THE CARLISLE INDIAN INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL (1879-1918), Those With American Indian-Native American Pride and Their Descendents, Facebook, 2025 [432]
168. ^ The Chippewa, Daily Globe, Feb 18, 1883, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [433]
169. ^ Daily Globe, Feb, 19, 1883, p.7, Library of Congress, 2024 [434]
170. ^ The Chippewa, Daily Globe, Feb 18, 1883, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [435]
171. ^ Sovereignty, Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians, Sault Ste. Marie, MI, 2024 [436]
172. ^ Indian Citizenship Act, Today in History, June 2, Library of Congress, 2024 [437]
173. ^ Jump up to:a b News of the War....The Response, Canada History-Documents Natives, 2025 [438]
174. ^ Native Soldiers - Foreign Battlefields,Prince of the Brigade, Veterans Affairs Canada, 2025 [439]
175. ^ The Press and Daily Dakotaian, Nov. 5, 1885, Library of Congress, 2023 [440]
176. ^ The Hickman Courier, Dec.4, 1885, Library of Congress, 2023 [441]
177. ^ Hole in the Day, St. Paul Daily Globe, Oct. 31, 1885, p.4, Library of Congress, 2023 [442]
178. ^ Mr. Hole in the Day, The Indianapolis Journal, Oct 30, 1885, p.4, Library of Congress, 2023 [443]
179. ^ A young Indian's Romantic History, The Minnesota Farmer, Apr. 23, 1886, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [444]
180. ^ Civilized, St Paul Daily Globe, Nov. 8, 1887, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [445]
181. ^ Vergrosserung Fort Ridgerlin Park geplant, New Ulm Post, Newspapers.com, 2025, May 01, 1914 p.6[446]
182. ^ Celebration at Fort Ridgely, New Ulm Review, Aug. 12, 1914, p.6, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2025 [447]
183. ^ Neues Denkmal in Ridgely, New Ulm Post, Jul 31, 1914, p.1, Newspapers.com, 2025 [448]
184. ^ Neues Denkmal, New Ulm Post, Aug 21, 1914 p.6, Newspapers.com, 2025 [449]
185. ^ "A Big Time On the Nipigon River That Time...", Nipigon Museum The Blog, 25 Dec. 2011 [450]
186. ^ Chippewa Indian Who Was Famous Fifty Years Ago Dying Near Fond du Lac, Minn, New York Times 27 June 1897: p.3, ProQuest, 2023 [451]
187. ^ The Saint Paul Globe, Oct. 16, 1898, p.1 p.3, Library of Congress, 2024 [452]
188. ^ Indian Chiefs want Peace, The Princeton Union, Oct 20, 1898, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [453]
189. ^ 1901 Calgary Silver Indian Peace Medal, Christies, 2001, London [454][455]
190. ^ Migisi, James T. Angus, Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Vol. 13, University of Toronto/Université Laval, 2024, [456]
191. ^ Conservation and the Speech of "Ishi's Elder Brother", The San Francisco Call, Jan. 28, 1912, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [457] (Ishi was a Yahi Native American that made news at that time)
192. ^ The Oglala Light, Pine Ridge, S.D., Dec. 1, 1913, p.30, Library of Congress, 2024 [458]
193. ^ Old Moo-Zoo gets his, New Ulm Review, Nov 01, 1916 p.2, Newspapers.com, 2025[459]
194. ^ One Indian Agent for Minnesota Chippewa's, The Tomahawk, White Earth December 21, 1916, p.1, Library of Congress, 2024 [460]
195. ^ Daily Globe, February 18, 1883, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [461]
196. ^ W.T. Kerr Advocating a Statue for the Chief that prevented a Massacre, Star Tribune, Aug 23, 1925 p.66, Newspapers.com, 2024 [462]
197. ^ The "Chippewa-Hiawatha": Chicago - Ontonagon, MI, Americanrails.com, 2025 [463]
198. ^ Chippewa 197, Streamliners, Tumblr, 2025 [464]
199. ^ Port Arthur and Fort William Greet King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, May 23, 1939, Thunder Bay public library, 2025. [465]
200. ^ The 1939 Royal Visit Medallions, Calgary Numismatic Society, 2025 [466]
201. ^ ID#:5853539, Prince Charles meets students at Children of the Earth, a secondary school, Government of Canada, April 1996 [467]
202. ^ Replication of an 1814 Peace Medal, Paul S. Storch, Minnesota Historical Society, 2025 [468]
203. ^ A Powerful Chief of the Ojibwa People, Sotheby's, Dec. 9, 2019 [469]
204. ^ The Sweetcorn Treaty 1858, Kade M. Harris, Turtle-Mountain Chippewa Heritage Center, 2024 [470]
205. ^ Fort Abercrombie Peace Conference, www.American Tribes.com, 2024 [471]
206. ^ Jump up to:a b Warriors in Lincoln's Army, Quita V. Shier, iUniverse, 2017, Native America Today, 2024 [472]
207. ^ American Indian Sharpshooters at the Battle of the Crater, Gordon Berg, History, 2016, History.net [473]
208. ^ Sons of Civil War preserve memory of two Medal of Honor soldiers, Loraine Anderson, Traverse City Record-Eagle, 2024 [474]
209. ^ Chapter LL, Lt. Freeman S. Bowley, The story of American heroism: thrilling narratives of personal adventures during the great civil war as told by the medal winners and roll of honor men, The Werner co. Chicago, New York, 1896, pp. 460-1, Library of Congress, 2025 [475]
210. ^ American Indians in the Civil War? Petersburg National Battlefield is Part of the Story, Dec. 2010, National Parks Traveler, 2025 [476]
211. ^ The Hillsdale Standard, 21 Jul 1863, p.2, Newspapers.com, [477]
212. ^ What We’ve Learned: “Reassessment”, Chris K. Howland, Emerging Civil War, 2024[478]
213. ^ Jump up to:a b c Company K of the 1st Michigan Sharpshooters, American Battlefield Trust, 2024 [479]
214. ^ Company K 1st Michigan Sharpshooters: Antoine Scott, Vicki Wilson, Native Sharp Shooters, 2024, [480]
215. ^ The Mine Disaster, Petersburg, Virginia, July 1864, Sidney and James B. Haight, Eva Gray Tent 2 website, 2024 [481]
216. ^ Patriotism Among the Indians: Civil War Recruitment, Pentwater Historical Society, 2024 [482]
217. ^ Company K, 1st Michigan Sharpshooters at Spotsylvania, Sarah Kay Bierle, Emerging Civil War, 2024 [483]
218. ^ The Road to Andersonville, Frank Boles, Clarke Historical Library, 2013 [484]
219. ^ COMPANY K, 1st Michigan Sharpshooters During The Civil War 1961-1865, Kokopelli, Find a Grave, findagrave.com 2024 [485]
220. ^ Company K 1st Michigan Sharpshooters, October 30, 2024 [486]
221. ^ The Battle of Birch Cooley, Chicago Tribune, Sept. 10, 1862, p.1, Newspapers.com, 2023 [487]
222. ^ Jump up to:a b c d One Drop In A Sea Of Blue, John B. Lundstrom, Minnesota Historical Society Press, 345 Kellogg Blvd, St Paul, MN, 2012, p.10
223. ^ Letter From Capt. McCoy, St. Cloud Democrat, 30 April, 1863, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2023, MNHS [488]
224. ^ 85 year old chief still joins in dances, The Tomahawk 18 Sept 1919, p.1 , Newspapers.com, 2023 [489]
225. ^ Big River Man News-Beaulieu Family History, June 2010 [490]
226. ^ Captain Bealieau Dies, Minneapolis Daily Times, 9 May 1904, p.7, Newspapers.com, 2023 [491]
227. ^ About Mou-zoo-mau-nee, Little Falls Herald 4 Sept. 1914, p.2, Newspapers.com, 2023 [492]
228. ^ EastSide Notes, The Fargo Forum and Daily Republican, Aug. 07, 1914, Library of Congress, 2023 [493]
229. ^ Wisconsin’s Native-Americans During the Civil War, ARTROOT'S Racine's Writer-in-Residence, May 24, 2019 [494]
230. ^ Sept-Oct 1864, The History of the 3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry, David Frohmader, 2025 [495]
231. ^ 7th Wisconsin, Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County Battlefields National Military Park, National Park Service, 2025 [496]
232. ^ A Fatherly Eye: Indian Agents, Government Power, and Aboriginal Resistance in Ontario, 1918–1939, Robin Brownlie, University of Toronto Press, p.63, 2025, [497]
233. ^ 501st Infantry Regiment, The Institute of Heraldry, U.S. Army, 2024 [498]
234. ^ Will enlist Chippewas, The Madison Daily Leader, Jan. 15, 1892, p.2 , Library of Congress, 2024 [499]
235. ^ Domestic, Iowa County Democrat, Mar. 24, 1898, p.2 [500]
236. ^ The Spanish Difficulty, Morris Tribune, Morris Minnesota, March 30, 1898, p.7, Library of Congress, 2024 [501]
237. ^ Regiment of Chippewas, The Age-Herald, Birmingham Alabama, Mar. 13, 1898, p.5, Library of Congress, 2024 [502]
238. ^ Chippewa Warriors, Stockton Record, Vol. VI, No. 133, 14 Mar. 1898, California Digital Newspaper Collection, UC Stockton, CA [503]
239. ^ Indians in World War I Centennial site, The United States Foundation for the Commemoration of the World Wars, 2024, [504]
240. ^ the United States Foundation for the Commemoration of the World Wars, 2014 [505]
241. ^ Easy to Secure Chippewa Regiment, The Duluth Herald, April 7, 1917, Minnesota Digital Newspaper hub, 2024, MNHS, [506]
242. ^ Jump up to:a b World War I Native American soldiers could be in line for Medals of Honor, Joshua Skovlund, Task & Purpose, 2024 [507]
243. ^ The Story of "Old Abe," famous Wisconsin War Eagle on 101st Airborne Division patch, Capt. James A. Page, U.S. Army, 2012 [508]
244. ^ Indians in the War 1945, Naval History and Heritage Command, 2024 [509]
245. ^ Honoring Native American Code Talkers: The Road to the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 (Public Law 110-420), William Meadows, UCLA American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 2011, [510]
246. ^ Tommy Prince Warrior, McKenzie Porter, Canadian Military History Vol.16 Issue 2 Article 7, 2012 [511]
247. ^ Tommy Prince, 1915-1977, Canadian stamp stories, Canada Post, 2025 [512]
248. ^ Downed Over Japan: Aviation Radioman First Class Oliver Rasmussen, Naval History and Heritage Command, 2024 [513]
249. ^ Chippewa Lead-inlaid Black Stone Pipe Bowl, American Indian & Ethnographic Art, 05-12-2012, Skinner Auctions, Boston MA. [514]
250. ^ Red Pipestone Quarry, The Topeka State Journal, May 08, 1899, p.7, Library of Congress, 2024 [515]
251. ^ The Sacred Pipestone Quarry, The Learned Eagle-Optic, Aug 9, 1901 p.4, Newspapers.com [516]
252. '^ Sioux Pipestones, The Chronicle, Wilkesboro, North Carolina, Jun 21, 1899, p.2, Newspapers.com, 2024, [517]
253. ^ The Pipestone of Devis Lake, E.E. Woodman, 14 Feb. 1877, Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, p.251-58, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 2024 [518]
254. ^ Chippewa, Native American, Pipe Bowl, ca. 1850, black stone with pewter or lead inlay, Alamy.com 2024, Alamy Inc. 49 Flatbush Ave, #130, Brooklyn, NY [519]
255. ^ Chippewa, Native American, Pipe Bowl, 18th century, stone, Alamy.com 2024, Alamy Inc. 49 Flatbush Ave, #130, Brooklyn, NY [520]
256. ^ Chippewa, Native American, Pipe Bowl, ca. 1860, steatite with lead inlay, Overall: 3 1/8 × 5 1/4 × 1 1/4 inches, Alamy.com 2024, Alamy Inc. 49 Flatbush Ave, #130, Brooklyn, NY [521]
257. ^ Chippewa, Native American, Pipe Bowl, ca. 1850, black/brown stone (olivine series, possibly fayalite), Alamy.com 2024, Alamy Inc. 49 Flatbush Ave, #130, Brooklyn, NY [522]
258. ^ Pipestone, The Conservative, March 21, 1901, p.8, Chronicling America, 2024, Library of Congress [523]
259. ^ Great Red Pipestone Quarries, The Minneapolis Journal, Aug. 30, 1902, The Journal Junior, p.22, 2024, Library of Congress [524]
260. ^ Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay (Flat Mouth) Steatite pipe, Leech Lake, Minnesota Chippewa, Smithsonian, National Museum of American Indian, Washington, D.C., 2024[525]
261. ^ Southwestern Chippewa/Ojibwa steatite pipe, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, MA, 2024 [526]
262. ^ Black steatite Ojibawa/Chippewa Pipe, with lead and catlinite Inlays, 2024, Heartland Artifact Auctions, Quincy, IL [527]
263. ^ Lake Winnibigoshish/Leech Lake steatite pipe ca. 1870-1900, Smithsonian, NMAI, Washington, D.C., 2024 [528]
264. ^ Anishinaabe Pictographs, Ramblin' Boy, 2024 [529]
265. ^ Chippewa Pictograph Sites of the Border States (Michigan, Minnesota; Wisconsin), Ramblin' Boy, 2024, [530]
266. ^ Chippewa Indians, U.S. History Images, 2025 [531]
267. ^ Four Boats Named Chippewa! A Pictorial History, Al Hart, Inland Seas: Fall 2011, National Museum of the Great Lakes, Toledo, Ohio, 2024 [532]
268. ^ HCMS Ojibwa insignia, ReadyAyeReady.com, 2025 [533]
269. ^ HCMS Ojibwa profile, HMCS Ojibwa Museum, 2025 [534]
270. ^ Experience HMCS OJIBWA, HMCS Ojibwa Tours, 2025 [535]
271. ^ Star Tribune, Aug. 4, 1899 p.2, Newspapers.com, 2024 [536]
272. ^ Prospects for the Pipestone Indian School are Excellent, The Minneapolis Journal, Mar 25, 1890 p.2, Newspapers.com, 2024 [537]
273. ^ PITS girls basketball team 1908, Minnesota Digital Library Pipestone County Historical Society, 2024 [538]
274. ^ Indian Girls' Basketball Team PITS, Seven unidentified girls, A.C. Milum, Minnesota Digital Library, Pipestone Historical Society, 2024 [539]
275. ^ Mandolin Club, Pipestone Indian Training School students, Pipestone, Minnesota, Pipestone County Historical Society, 2024 [540]
276. ^ Pipeston Indian School Closing Remains Unsettled, Argus-Leader, Sioux Falls, SD, Jan 06, 1952, p.10, Newspapers.com 2024 [541]
277. ^ Would Close School at Pipestone, The Albert Lea Tribune, Jan 09, 1952, p.6, Newspapers.com, 2024, [542]
278. ^ Indian School at Pipestone May Continue, Argus-Leader, Sioux Falls, SD, Feb 05, 1953, p.15, Newspapers.com, 2024, [543]
279. ^ Sioux Kickers, Reporter and Farmer, Webster SD, Aug 20, 1891 p.2 Newspapers.com [544]
280. ^ Sioux Indians Protest, Chippewa Herald-Telegram, Aug 18, 1891 p.1 Newspapers.com, 2024 [545]
281. ^ Chattering young Sioux, The Minneapolis Journal, Mar 28, 1893 p.4, Newspapers.com [546]
282. ^ The Slayton Gazette and Murray County Pioneer, Sept. 6, 1894, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [547]
283. ^ White Earth News, The Thirteen Towns, Mar, 1, 1895, Fosston, Minnesota, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [548]
284. ^ The Slayton gazette and Murray County Pioneer, July 1, 1897, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, 345 Kellogg Blvd, St. Paul MN [549]
285. ^ Enroute to Pipestone, The Saint Paul Globe, Aug. 9, 1897, p.2, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [550]
286. ^ Jump up to:a b c School News and Records, Pipestone County, Minnesota, Genealogy Trails History Group, 2024 [Chippewa Pipestone indian school genology trails]
287. ^ The Indian's Red Pipestone, Star Tribune, Jun 14, 1899 p.12, Newspapers.com, 2024 [551]
288. ^ The Indian's Red Pipestone, The Sun, New York, NY, May 21, 1899 p.6 Newspapers.com, 2024, [552]
289. ^ Minneapolis Daily Times, Dec 07, 1900 p.7, Newspapers .com, 2024 [553]
290. ^ Minnesota Wins Many Medals, The Minneapolis Tribune, Dec 06, 1901, p.4, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [554]
291. ^ They made the news and were included in Minnesota's total number of medals but were not identified, The Saint Paul Globe, May 09, 1902, p.10, Library of Congress, 2024 [555]
292. ^ The Minneapolis Journal, Nov. 7, 1902, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS [556]
293. ^ Proposals for Net Beef, Argus-Leader, Jul 14, 1904 p.2, Newspapers.com, 2024[557]
294. ^ Miss Julia Roy, Little Falls Herald, Sept. 01, 1905, p.1, Library of Congress, 2024 [558]
295. ^ Wife of Chippewa Chief dies here, Evening Star, Dec.9, 1934, P. A9, Library of Congress, 2024 [559]
296. ^ Minneapolis Journal, 16 June, 1906, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [560]
297. ^ The Sisseton Weekly Standard, Jul 10, 1908, p.7 Newspaper.com, 2024 [561]
298. ^ History, Pipestone Indian Training School, Pipestone, Minnesota, 1893-1953, America's Lost Colleges, Paul Batesel, 2024 [562]
299. ^ image 13/31, (5th row down), Pipestone, Minnesota Native American Training School Photo Archive of Chester E. Sogn, James E. Arsenault & Company, Rare Books, Manuscripts, Maps, Prints Photographs, 10 Old Stage Rd, Arrowsic, ME, 2024 [563]
300. ^ Approbation estimates, Bismarck Daily Tribune, Dec. 11, 1915, p. 4, Library of Congress, 2024 [564]
301. ^ Indian Schools in Danger of Closing, The Fargo Forum and Daily Republican, Aug.8, 1916, p.2, Library of Congress, 2024 [565]
302. ^ Big Indian Game may Come to Willmar, Willmar Tribune, October 14, 1914, p.1, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, 345 Kellogg Blvd, St. Paul MN [566]
303. ^ The Tomahawk, White Earth Reservation, July 04, 1918, p.3, Library of Congress, 2024 [567]
304. ^ Enrollment in Pipestone Schools breaks record, Sioux City Journal, Sept 15, 1927, p.3, Newspapers.com 2024 [568]
305. ^ The Indians Went on the Warpath, The Minneapolis Journal, Nov 30, 1930, p.31, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, St. Paul MN [569]
306. ^ A New Indian Hospital aa Pipestone Opened, The Redwood Gazette, Sept. 22, 1932, p,2, Library of Congress, 2024 [570]
307. ^ Junior High Teams Meet Pipestone Indians, Sioux Center News, Sioux Center Iowa, Jan 23, 1941, p.1, Newspapers.com, 2024 [571]
308. ^ Support Stands, Star Tribune, Aug 26, 1948, p.6, Newspapers.com, 2024 [572]
309. ^ Ask Reopening of Pipestone Indian School, The Daily Argus Leader, Sioux Falls, SD, Aug. 8, 1948, Newspapers.com, 2024 [573]
310. ^ Sleepy Eye Herald-Dispatch, Aug. 26, 1948, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, St. Paul, MN [574]
311. ^ 350 Capacity, The Daily Argus leader, Sioux Falls, SD, Feb. 18, 1949, Newspapers.com 2024 [575]
312. ^ Fight to keep the Indian School and Hospital Begins, The Winona Republican-Herald, Jan 31, 1949, p.5, Newspapers.com 2024 [576]
313. ^ Argus-Leader, Apr 26, 1953 p.42 Newspapers.com, 2024 [577]
314. ^ Indian School Fights Closing, The Sioux City Journal, Feb 08, 1953 p.45, Newspapers.com, 2024 [578]
315. ^ Opens Talks, Argus-Leader, Feb 05, 1953 p.15, Newspapers.com, 2024, [579]
316. ^ St. Paul Recorder, May 24, 1940, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, St. Paul MN [580]
317. ^ Chief William Madison, Sleepy Eye Herald-Dispatch, Aug. 1, 1950, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, St. Paul MN, [581]
318. ^ Jump up to:a b The Cointel Pro Papers, Ward Churchill, South End Press, Cambridge MA 1990, p.253 ISBN 2002106479
319. ^ In the Spirit of Crazy Horse, Peter Matthiessen, The Viking Press, New York 1980, p.37-8 ISBN 0-670-39702-4
320. ^ The Queen in Manitoba during 1970 royal tour. The Canadian Press/Peter Bregg, The Conversation September 8, 2022, 2025[582]
321. ^ Adventures Of The Ojibbeway And Ioway Indians In England, France, And Belgium, George Catlin, NO. 6, Waterloo Place, London, 1852, [583]
322. ^ George Catlin’s Obsession, Bruce Watson, Smithsonian magazine: December 2002, [584]
323. ^ History of the Ojibwa Nation, Minnesota Historical Society, Volume V, Willliam Warren, Minnesota Historical Society 1883 [585]
324. ^ Home Remedies of the Frontier, Le Sueur News-Herald, Feb. 16, 1949, Minnesota Digital Newspaper Hub, 2024, MNHS, 345 Kellogg Blvd, St. Paul MN [586]
325. ^ Chippewa photo, Christiane Schulze Art and Photography, 2024 [587]
326. ^ Ojibwa Pictography: The Origins of Writing and the Rise of Social Complexity, Joan M. Vastokas, 1956, Sematic Scholar, 2024 [588]
327. ^ The traditional history and characteristic sketches of the Ojibway nation, George Copway, Boston, B. F. Mussey & Co., 1851, Harvard University Library, 2024 [589]
328. ^ Ojibwe Oral Traditions, Milwaukee public Museum, 20025 [590]
329. ^ Waemboeshkaa, Chippeway Chief, McKenny, Thomas & Hall, James & Todd, Hatherly & Todd, Joseph. History of the Indian tribes of North America: with biographical sketches and anecdotes of the principal chiefs, D. Rice & Co. Philadelphia 1872, [591]
330. ^ Chippewa 350M, Electric VTOL News, Vertical Flight Society, 2025 [592] [593]